Cultural Communication In Conflict II: Empathy

This is the 2nd part to the Article Cultural Communication in Conflict. view part 1 


The Importance of Empathy in Conflict

Empathy and its roles in intergroup contact can take on many forms and patterns.  Because of this, a working understanding of the structures and functions of empathy must be included in any discussion involving the subject.  The concept of empathy has had a rich history.  Many theories have been proposed through various social science perspectives.  Psychology has offered many perspectives however; more recently, the types of empathy have been generally reduced to two. (Davis, 1994; Duan & Hill, 1996; Stephan & Finlay, 1999)  These types, though they can take on a number of overt expressions and labels such as race or culture, at their basis can be described as cognitive and emotional empathy.   Cognitive empathy involves a process in which one takes on to some extent, the perspective of the other. (Stephan & Finlay, 1999)  This is a process that is much more analytic and for the most part, devoid of emotional relation.  The second form of empathy, deals with the more emotional reaction to the other.  This reaction can either be parallel (feeling similar emotions to the other) or reactive (emotions spawned from a particular situation as viewed from your own perspective).  There are however questions of how much an individual can truly understand what the other is thinking or feeling.  This highlights an alternative perspective of empathy crystallized in Benjamin Broome’s model of relational empathy. 

 Broome’s relational empathy model puts the realm of empathy further from the individual and more into the relationships between individuals.  Empathy in this construction is heavily context dependant an creates meaning through successive approximations to the view of the other.(Broome, 1991)  This creation of meaning within the relation can form what Broome calls a “third culture” that reduces in-group/out-group differences and creates a new in-group identity. (1993).   This form of empathy requires particular conditions in the situation that provide an optimal degree of contact.   These can range from the manner of participant expression to other situational factors such as power asymmetry.    This idea follows closely with Milton Bennett’s formulation of empathy as “Participation in another’s experience.”(Bennett, 1979, p. 418) At its heart, relational empathy requires a dialogic relationship that can help fill in the gaps in other conceptions of empathy.

Though the differences between the two perspectives given here are important to understand, there is an argument that when combined they can create a comprehensive understanding of empathy especially cultural empathy.  The cognitive process that informs individuals is important to understand why they act particular ways within a relational situation.  This understanding can also help to understand the attitudes of the individual that can play an important role in creating a framework that will create a lasting attitude change.  Conversely, in order to get to the point of attitude change one must understand the dynamics of the relational contact that can lead to a process of mutual understanding through a change in relational meaning.  Essentially, intergroup contact is based on a dynamic construction in which the situational, social, and environmental factors interplay with the individual schemas and heuristics within each participant.  Each feeds off the other therefore a conception of empathy that reflects this duality is ideal.

            There is a wide array of research that indicates that the activation of empathy can be beneficial to social interactions.  The benefits range from the increase in helping (Batson, 1991; Batson et al., 1997; Davis, 1994; Oswald, 1996) to reductions of aggression. (Feshbach, 1989)  Likewise, there is also data that shows that empathy can be increased through training programs (Stephan & Finlay, 1999).  There is however research that shows that many of these programs tend to have only short term positive effects (Deutsch, 1991).  Some of these problems could be attributed to the absence of all the factors needed for optimal contact mentioned earlier.  Research in this area is murky at best and much more will need to be done to get a better understanding of this problem.


Part I: Culture And Conflict Resolution
Part III: Next Week......

 Reference List

Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Batson, C. D., Sager, K., Garst, E., Kang, M., Rubchinsky, K., & Dawson, K. (1997). Is empathy-induced helping due to self-other merging? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 495-509.

Bennett, M. J. (1979). Overcoming the golden rule: Sympathy and empathy. In D. Nimmo (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 3 (pp. 407-422). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Berry, J. W. (1984). Cultural relations in plural societies. In N. Miller & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Groups in Contact (pp. 11-27). New York: Academic Press.

Blake, R. R., Shepard, H. A., & Mouton, J. S. (1964). Managing intergroup Conflict in Industry. Houston, TX: Gulf.

Brewer, M. B. (1986). The role of ethnocentrism in intergroup contact. In S. Worchel & W. A. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations (2nd ed.). Chicago: Nelsen-Hall.

Broome, B. (1991). Building shared meaning: Implications of a relational approach to empathy for teaching intercultural communication. Communication Education, 40, 235-249.

Broome, B. (1993). Managing differences in conflict resolution: The role of relational empathy. In D. Sandole & H. Van Der Merwe (Eds.), Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice: Integration and Application Manchester, England: Manchester University Press.

Cambell, D. T. (1965). Ethnocentrism and other altruistic motives. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 13). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Davis, M. H. (1994). Empathy: A social psychological approach. . Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark.

Deutsch, M. (1991). Subjective features of conflict resolution: Psychological, Social, and Cultural Influences. In R. Vayrynen (Ed.), New Directions in Conflict Theory: Conflict Resolution and Conflict Transformation. London: Sage.

Duan, C., & Hill, C. E. (1996). The current state of empathy research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 261-274.

Feshbach, N. D. (1989). Empathy training and prosocial behavior. In J. Groebel & R. A. Hinde (Eds.), Aggression and war: Their biological and social bases (pp. 101-111). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Fisher, R. J. Interactive conflict resolution: A social-psychological approach to resolving violent ethnopolitical conflict. In M. Fitzduff & C. E. Stout (Eds.), The Psychology of Resolving Global Conflicts (Vol. 3). London: Praeger Security International

Fisher, R. J. (1997). Interactive Conflict Resolution. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press.

Fowler, S. M., & Blohm, J. M. (2004). An analysis of methods for intercultural training. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural Training. London: Sage.

LeBarron, M. (2003). Bridging Cultural Conflicts: A New Approach for a Changing World. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Oswald, P. A. (1996). The effects of cognitive and effective perspective taking on empathic concern and altruistic helping. Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 613-623.

Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 65-85.

Pranis, K., Stuart, B., & Wedge, M. (2003). Peacemaking Circles: From Crime to Community. St.Paul, Minnesota: Living Justice Press.

Rothman, J. (1997). Resolving Identity Based Conflicts in Nations, Organizations, and Communities. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Sherif, M. (1966). In Common Predicament: Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Stephan, W. G., & Finlay, K. (1999). The Role of Empathy in Improving Intergroup Relations. Journal of Social Issues, 55(4), 729-743.

Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (2000). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination (pp. 23-46). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in intergroup discrimination. Scientific American, 223, 96-102.

Tajfel, H. (1981). Human Groups and Social Categories. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Ting-Toomy, S. (2004). Translating conflict face-negotiation theory into practice. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of Intercultural Training. London: Sage Publications.

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Editorial: Expanded U.S. Foreign Engagement Vs. Reduced Commitments

Seal of the United States Department of State. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

By: Dennis B

The question of what American policy should be in regards to intervention comes with a myriad of other questions and concerns.  Questions such as legitimacy, the type, and the cost to benefit possibilities are only a few.  However, at its heart the question of intervention is a question of engagement or withdrawal from the international arena.  Should the U.S. move further into the world as the major force in international issues or should it be more concerned with domestic issues and only interject at precise calculated moments?  Due to the United States present situation in regards to the war on terror and its already established position as a world leader, there may not be much of a choice left. 

The post-cold war period has seen an increase in overall instability as many of the developing nations experience both the joys and pains of more directly entering the world community.  The U.S. role as world leader dictates that the U.S. must address these issues in some form.  However, it can be argued that in many of the situations in which the United States became directly invested in an intervention(e.g., Vietnam, Somalia, and Iraq), especially militarily, that the majority of the time the U.S. interests were not clearly served and the U.S. often left the situation the same or worse than before intervention. There are also situations that showed that direct U.S. involvement (such as the Gulf War) has led to unforeseen liabilities that have ultimately hurt U.S. security, interests, and credibility. The global community as it is today is extremely interconnected which makes it almost impossible to fully understand all the possible repercussions for any given intervention.  Add this to the fact that militarily the United States has not completely adapted to the form of asymmetrical warfare that is the norm today, and it leaves intervention as a very risky proposition.   

            Another important issue is that of the world economy and the effects globalization has on its well-being.  As the world becomes more interconnected, so do each nation’s economies within it.  In this regard, wars and military interventions in one area can effect a whole host of other nations simply by the means of economic exchange.  The argument could be made then that the United States must stay aggressively involved in international affairs simply because of indirect threats to its economy.  The fragility of gas prices in regards to international crisis is a perfect example.  However, economic concerns can also make the choices for intervention more profound in terms of unexpected repercussions.   An argument could be made that if, as some theories posit, countries tend to be more likely to intervene internationally in times of economic downturn, then an interconnected global market could create a self-perpetuating cycle of economic hardship and increased intervention.  As one conflict causes a downturn in another country’s economy then that could perpetuate a pro-interventionist policy within that country that then intervenes somewhere else.   

            Another important factor in the intervention question is that of prior military engagement or commitments.  The United States often determines an intervention by the level of military commitment they have already made.  If this policy continues, given the expansion of military bases around the world, then it would seem inevitable that the U.S. will intervene more.  There is the argument however, that the proliferation of U.S. military bases, and the problems within the communities they create, has given the U.S. an international image as the new empire.  The last thing that we need to do in light of these perceptions is to add messy interventions in those areas as further proof. 

            The history and legacy of U.S. intervention has not had a shining record.  Additionally, the ghosts of interventions past are increasingly coming back to haunt us today.  We can continue our role as the aggressive world leader bringing freedom and morality to the masses, however with our past failures and the overall inefficiency and bad judgment the U.S. has portrayed in many of our decisions on intervention, we risk becoming a leader with no followers.  An expanded engagement policy would do more to alienate the U.S. from the international community than help to build a new world order.  Furthermore, as Iraq has shown, often a military solution to create security for the U.S. can often have the reverse effects.  This is not to say the U.S. should not get involved in any international crises, but instead it should only do so in cases where it is the safest in regards to international opinion, possible harm done, or humanitarian need.  This could be best served through a policy of reduced commitments in so that the impetus or need to get involved in more risky interventions in terms of success or ill repute is much less likely.  Furthermore, the reduced engagement would also allow for a much larger and effective response in cases of intervention because the resources for intervention would not be overstretched.  A reduced commitment can also help to add legitimacy to the U.S. as a democracy builder by reducing some of the more imperialistic actions, perceived or real.   Finally, a policy of reduced engagement can help wean the international community of the idea of the U.S. as the world’s police force and create a much more multilateral structure.

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Cultural Communication In Conflict I: Culture And Conflict Resolution

The role of culture in many ways can determine the direction of many conflict situations.  Errors in attribution, perception, and communication within a cultural context can create major blocks to attempts at negotiation, mediation, or other problem solving activities.(Deutsch, 1991)  That it is why in conflict situations, attention to cultural interaction and communication is paramount. This 3 part article will focus on three important aspects of intercultural communication in conflict.

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Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Human Unity

Humankind since its beginnings has tried to make sense of its existence.  Since the first realization that the person as an individual is separate from their environment, we have tried to answer the questions of who we are.  At first, our instincts and animalistic preconditions tried to answer the question through the templates set up to protect us from our environment.  The need to stereotype our world around us in its simplest form is one example of this.  Evolutionary and Cognitive psychologists explain this as the theory of psychological load.  Simply put, this theory expounds that the multitude of sensory experiences we face every second is overwhelming.  In order to cope with this we create shortcuts in our mind to help us make inferences about the world around us.  This lessens the amount of mental energy needed to process what we experience.  Conditioning then occurs to create stereotypes that become lasting mental templates that allow us to combine sensory clues to predict how an outside actor will act based solely on those clues.  However, the very fact that this is a shortcut denotes that the accuracy of such method can be problematic.  Add to this the complexities of a more evolved form of rationality, emotion, and social structure that humankind exhibits and the problem becomes more salient.  It is this problem of stereotyping that gives rise to what the modern world refers to prejudice.  The answer to this problem is a matter of reflection and questioning of just why we are the way we is.  One of the main things that se us apart from the rest of the animal kingdom, is our belief that there is something more to this life than mere survival.  The search for the “purpose of life” is a prime example of this.  However, in this search we need to question the very instinct that, within this search to understand the world around us, terminates our own search for self-knowledge before it even begins.  The perspective of human unity goes far to address this issue and likewise can be just as incite full in breaking the bonds of prejudice.

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Human Unity in World Citizenship

The concept of world citizenship has been around for hundreds of years.  Its history can be traced from the stoics of ancient Greece to the discourses of Kant and Thomas Paine to, in the case of this particular paper, Martha Nussbaum.  Nussbaum in her book Cultivating Humanity, looks at the importance of a liberal education in the cultivation of world citizenship or what Nussbaum refers to as the cultivation of humanity.  The focus of this paper is to review what Nussbaum regards as the capacities of world citizenship and what role the perspective of Human Unity can bee seen to play in it.     

Nussbaum argues that there are three capacities one must have in order to become a citizen of the world.  The first of these is the “capacity for critical examination of oneself and ones traditions”.[1] Simply put, one must be willing and able to question the fundamental structures and symbols that make up one’s individual identity.  Under this idea, no explanation of one’s beliefs can be left to the justification of tradition or habit.  This parallels the perspective of Human Unity in the sense that in the search for self-understanding one must constantly question the symbols that make up one’s identity.  If this does not occur, unquestioned symbols become independent of the individual “and survive at the cost of sacrificing the self-knowledge of those who impose or accept them”.[2] The constant questioning of symbols within the Human Unity standpoint prevents the individual from attaining self-satisfaction and the eventual enslavement of the individual to their own cultural symbols.

            The second of Nussbaum’s Capacities is the ability to see oneself not just as a member of a local group but also a human being “bound to all other human beings by ties of recognition and concern”.[3]  This allows us to cultivate many prospects of communication and fellowship with distant groups as well as realize the “responsibilities we may have to them”[4]  Human unity explains this realization of responsibility to others as simply the realization of our interdependence with all of humanity.  Self-understanding, within Human Unity, is only achievable through the mutual recognition the framework of interdependence provides.  This common condition of mutual recognition and the need for self-understanding “is only fulfilled as long as all other parts that are sharing this condition are able to fulfill it as well”.[5]  True human unity calls for the allowance of all humans to participate in the search because if all humanity is unified then all humanity must have an equal chance at self-realization or all suffer from the deficiency.  Therefore our responsibility to the other is to further our search for self-understanding through the other while allowing them to search through ourselves under the restriction that we do so in order to not only add to our own self-understanding but to the self-understanding of all humanity.  Likewise, the realization that we all share a common humanity entails, “relating with the diversity of the other as an essential feature in the fulfillment of one’s own singularity”.[6] 

            The third and final capacity of a world citizen according to Nussbaum is what she calls the narrative imagination.  This capacity allows the individual to place him or herself into the role of a distant other.  An individual with narrative imagination is able to understand the “emotions and wishes and desires that someone so placed might have”.[7] This allows the individual to interact with the other based on the context of that particular others own personal social world.  Human unity also dictates this need by the fact that a unified human condition is not made up of uniform entities but rather of diverse entities working under a common goal.  This diversity creates very effective levels of dialogue by causing culture clashes that can result the questioning of both parties identity, however if there is no initial understanding or even a realization of human unity, the dialogue will never happen.  This is where the ability to identify with the other is so important.  According to Nussbaum however, this is not an uncritical understanding of the other’s position.  Nussbaum’s add that it is inevitable that when we look at situations from another person’s point of view we still bring with us some of our previous beliefs.  Interestingly, it can be argued that the human unity perspective needs this critical understanding to truly work.  When one partakes in the search for  true self-understanding it is imperative that the individual engages with the other under the idea of not only gaining better self-understanding but also giving the other person a better understanding of their own identity.  In order to do this, the individual must bring their own cultural and societal understanding to the dialogue or the interaction becomes one sided.  A one sided dialogue is destructive in the sense that it replaces interdependency with dependency, which can undermine the entire project of human unity.  

            Nussbaum also deliberates for a short time on the role of liberal education in creating the capacity for world citizenship.  She places a great importance on the diverse experiences and points of view a liberal education can offer. I think this is an important with in the human unity perspective as well because again, if students are exposed to a diverse range of beliefs and ideas it makes the type of dialogue needed fro self-understanding to flourish.  However, what the human unity argument would warn against are the forms of liberal education that simply hope to create tolerance of other cultures instead of real understanding and dialogue.  We can see this in the propagation of value relativism within liberal American institutions, which does more to undermine true self-understanding than foster its growth.        

The perspectives of both Nussbaum’s world citizen and the human unity argument have many things in common.  The human unity perspective goes into deeper philosophical detail than the arguments Nussbaum’s presented here, however they compliment each other well.  Nussbaum’s commentary on how the liberal arts tradition lays the foundations for the world citizen provides a logical bridge between the theory of human unity and the real world application of a world citizen.  However, what the human unity perspective advocates that Nussbaum’s argument doe not handle is that the search for self-understanding can never truly end.  The very process is the means and the end.  If the process of self-understanding does end then the individual simply falls into the vicious cycle of self–satisfaction.    

---

[1] Martha Nussbaum.  Cultivating  Humanity: a classical defense of reform in liberal education

[2] Martha.  J. Rabbani.  Truth and Power in the Development Debate.  Manuscript pg21

[3] Martha Nussbaum.  Cultivating  Humanity: a classical defense of reform in liberal education

[4] Martha Nussbaum.  Cultivating  Humanity: a classical defense of reform in liberal education

[5]Martha.  J. Rabbani.  Truth and Power in the Development Debate.  Manuscript.  Pg13

[6] Martha.  J. Rabbani.  Truth and Power in the Development Debate.  Manuscript.  pg26

[7]Martha Nussbaum.  Cultivating  Humanity: a classical defense of reform in liberal education

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Army Used Psy-Ops On U.S. Senators

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Gadhafi Orders Sabotage Of Pipelines

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Gadhafi Prepares For "Martyrdom"

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Earthquake Rattles New Zealand

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Libyan Soldiers Burned to death for refusing to fire on Protesters :VIDEO (graphic images)

via youtube.com

Posted via email from Balinko

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Gadhafi On Libya TV: Video

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Moammar Gadhafi, in an attempt to show that he is still in charge, gave a brief tv interview around 2 am Tuesday. The short interview which showed Gadhafi outside of his residence consisted mainly of Gadhafi stating that he was "in Tripoli, not in Venezuela". He then followed with the warning "Don't believe those dogs in the media". The strange video, that often had visual disruption of some sort of dance performance, seemed to be rather rushed, with Gadhafi sitting halfway outside a car with an umbrella. Although the video is meant to show that Gadhafi is still around, it is hard not to get the feeling from the way the "interview" was set up, that this was a man on the run. Watch the video courtesy of CNN below

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An oldie but a goodie

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WikiLeaks: Bahrain as "Irans Fourteenth Providence"

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Mousavi Missing

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Spain: Toledo

The Alcázar of Toledo, on the left in the image. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

A few Hours south of Madrid is the famous city of Toledo. We traveled by bus and as we entered the gates to the old city it immediately felt as though we were entering into the middle ages. The old city is still mostly surrounded by a wall that dates back to the times of Muslim control. Toledo has existed since the bronze age first as a Roman trading hub, then as a capital of Visigoth Spain, then capital of the Caliphate of Cordoba.  After the Chrisitan-Muslim struggles for Spain it fell to the Castillians in 1085 opening a new period of Christian rule. Interestinglly the Castillians didn't sack and destroy the muslim libraries, but instead set up a mass translation projest that provided access to a large amount of knowledge that was previously lost in northern Europe. After 1085 Toledo became the capital for the King until it was moved to Valladolid and then Madrid.
Given its long and eclectic past the city retains a very multicultural feel both in the architecture and people. Some of the most notable sights included the:


Puente Trajan at Alcantara built in between 104 and 106 CE by Roman Emporer Trajan



Alcazar de Toledo ancient fortress and military school


 Puente de Alacantara

Cathedral de Toledo

Monasterio de San Jaun

Overall the city is amazing with a patchwork of Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and Roman Influences. Well worth the trip.  Here are the rest of the photos.

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North Korea Fires Rockets at Yeonpyeong Island

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Spain: El Escorial

El Escorial (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

      El Escorial is fairly close to Madrid (45 mins by train) and is well worth the trip.  El Escorial itself is tucked between mountains overlooking a valley.  Just a few minutes in the town and you could understand why the kings of the past chose this area for a place of respite.

Monastery San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Madrid, Spain. Distant view. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

       El Escorial was finished in 1587 after 21 years of work. It was concieved by Phillip II of Spain in part to celebrate victory at the battle of St. Quentin in Picardy, France, and to establish Spain as the center of the Catholic world during the reformation.  Historically, El Escorial has played dual roles as both a monastary and royal palace. It has also has been the final resting place of all of Spains kings since it was built.  The complex is comprised of the Basilica, Royal Palace, Friars Gardens, and Library.  Each is incorporated into a total structure that is surrounded with outer walls and towers at each corner.
     The Main architect was the famous Juan Bautista de Toledo, however he did not live to see its completion and his duties were taken up by his apprentice Juan de Herrera. Dozens of other architects were also used as collaborators for the many areas of the complex. Presently, El Escorial is no longer the palace of the King but is still a monastery and final resting place for Spain's royal families.

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